This is a result of a recent security analysis I performed for ppcoin. Comments are appreciated.
Abstract
========
A vulnerability in the POS scheme implemented by ppcoin is presented, where an attacker can increase the POS generating capacity of available stake by performing an exhaustive search for the POS target equation.
Introduction
============
The security model of ppcoin is based on a hybrid proof of work/stake (POW/POS) design, where the majority of new coins are generated through POW and the long-term network security is facilitated through POS generated blocks. Using the generated coins itself in the mining process has the obvious benefit of avoiding the consumption of a physical resource, e.g. electricity, in securing the network. The premise of POS is that by using existing coins as stake in competing for the generation of valid blocks, no entity can manipulate the blockchain growth in their favor, e.g. by performing double spending attacks, if the stake is sufficiently decentralized. However, the POS implementation of ppcoin has a vulnerability, which allows an entity with a moderately small amount of stake to temporarily gain control over blockchain growth, and thus perform double spending attacks. This is facilitated by "burning" the stake as fast as possible, which is possible by increasing the sampling rate at which each stake is tested against permutations of the seed constants in the POS generation process. As a consequence, an attacker only has to gain as much stake and computational power to outpace the network for a limited number of blocks, for the attack to go through. The speedup gained by burning stake as fast as possible can be significant (>1000), because the default sampling rate provided by standard client is low. Since the amount of stake required for exploiting this vulnerability is negligible, the premise of stake being a force to keep miners benevolent does not apply to this kind of attacker.
Discussion
==========
The hashing algorithm for POS tests each unspent output for the following target condition (wallet.cpp,1263/1264)
CoinDays*TargetPerCoinDay >= Hash(Difficulty + InputStakeBlockTimestamp + InputStakeTXByteOffset + InputStakeTimestamp + InputStakeTransactionOutputNumber + CoinstakeTimestamp)
The default client tests the result of this condition at a rate of 1 to 5 per second.
The left side of this equation depends on the amount and the age of the used stake (CoinDays) and the POS difficulty of the network (TargetPerCoinDay). The network difficulty is adjusted so as to keep the number of generated POS blocks per hour constant with a running average (logic defined in function GetNextTargetRequired() ). The right side of the equation is deterministic with a finite search space: The difficulty is a fixed number and only depends on the current height of the blockchain, the InputStakeBlockTimestamp, InputStakeTXByteOffset, InputStakeTimestamp and InputStakeTransactionOutputNumber are determined by the unspent stake output to be consumed and the CoinstakeTimestamp is taken from a 2 hour window from current to past time, with a granularity in seconds (thus about 7200 choices possible).
The likelihood of generating a POS block is defined by the proportions of the left and right side of the above equation and the number of trials:
P(success)=trials*P(left>=right,trial)
(approximation for P(left>=right,trial)<<1)
Thus one can directly see that increasing the #trials increases the overall capacity of a stake output to yield a valid POS block, given that the input for the right side of the target condition is variable. The reason to include variable input parameters is to prevent pre-computation attacks, where an attacker pre-computes valid POS blocks for highly predictable input parameters for the right side of the target equation. Including the Difficulty parameter in the target equation makes the computation dependent upon the current state of the network, and requires an attacker to have the required computational resources online at the time of the attack or compute a wide variety of difficulty pathways in advance. The purpose of the CoinstakeTimestamp parameter seems to be to constrain the validity of the input for the hash equation to a specific time regime, thus furthering the need for online computational resources.
Thus the POS scheme seems to be exposed to a dilemma: While the right hand side of the target equation needs to be variable and moderately unpredictable (to prevent pre-computation attacks), the increase in variability increases the benefit of using computational resources to extend the POS generating capacity of a stake by maximizing the #trials. The effectiveness of burning stake by maximizing the sampling rate is shown in the Appendix A.
Conclusion
=======
While this analysis discusses the effect of an exhaustive search on the target equation, the possibility for advanced pre-computation attacks is yet to be determined. At its current incarnation, the target equation is highly predictable which may allow an attacker to boost their POS generating capacity to ridiculous lengths, given enough computational resources. Under these conditions the amount of stake only determines the maximum time the attack can be sustained. However, many attacks, e.g. double spend attacks require only temporary control over blockchain growth.
What matters in the end is the effect of competition. I.e. if all major stake holders perform the same aggressive sampling strategies for generating POS blocks, the possibility to outpace the network is nullified. However, this degrades POS to POW, because suddenly finding valid POS blocks "fast" is a computational problem. This renders the POS implementation pointless.
Appendix A
=======
stats:
sampling rate: 200 trials per second per unspent output
stake: ~ 220k
65 consecutive blocks.
total time: 338 seconds
average time per block : 5.2 seconds
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